From AC to ZEV: EV Charging Terms Explained

Alternating current (AC) is an electric current that reverses its direction at regular intervals. You'll usually find AC current used inside houses and buildings. AC current can run in single-phase (usually in residences) or three-phase (more commonly found in commercial buildings). (As opposed to DC/Direct Current)

Active Power (also known as real power, true power, or usable power) is the type of power you are usually talking about, measured in watts and kilowatts, that does the work to light a lightbulb or run a charging station

Advanced Distribution Management System (ADMS) is a software platform that senses and manages distribution grid operations, with a focus on utility-owned assets. Usually a predecessor to a DERMS.

Aggregation in EV charging is the combination and coordination of multiple small, distributed resources (even kW-scale) to present them as a single resource of usable size to the utility or system operator (potentially MW-scale). These aggregations are often referred to as Virtual Power Plants.

Advanced Metering Infrastructure (see also "Smart Meters") consists of digital electricity meters that record, store, and communicate energy usage data to utilities at set intervals, usually hourly or every 15 minutes, and may record both energy consumed and produced at a site for net metering of onsite generation.

Amps (short for Ampere) in EV charging is a unit of measurement for electric current. Calculated as Amps = Watts/Volts. 

Ancillary Services in EV charging are wholesale electricity market products dedicated to maintaining the reliability of the system, such as frequency regulation, and various operating reserves contracted in case of a major generator dropping off-line

Automated Load Management in EV charging is the application of a Power Control System to limit or control current or power to stay within safe defined limits.

The Balance Responsible Party is an EU-specific entity required to participate in wholesale electricity markets to ensure that energy supply and demand are as closely balanced as possible. There is no analogous entity in North American markets.

Base Load in EV charging is the minimum amount of power required/delivered at a steady rate over a given period of time. Often actually refers to power plants normally operated to serve loads on an around-the-clock basis.

A Battery Energy Storage System for EV charging generally refers to a stationary battery system installed on-site. It works like a giant rechargeable battery, storing energy from the grid or on-site renewable energy sources like solar or wind power.

A Battery Electric Vehicles is an electric vehicle (EV) that runs entirely on battery energy, distinct from a hybrid or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.

Behind The Meter (BTM) in EV charging refers to a generation or storage resource located on-site, on the customer's side of the utility meter, typically intended to serve some or all of the customer's energy needs.

Bidirectional Charging of electric vehicles is defined as a connection between the vehicle and the charger that enables an electric vehicle to draw power from the grid or an on-site generation system and also send power back through the charger to the building or to the grid. The vehicle serves as an energy storage device capable of charging and discharging as needed.

The California Independent System Operator (CAISO) Administers California's transmission system and wholesale electricity markets.

The California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) is a government agency that regulates companies that provide public goods such as electricity, natural gas, telecommunications, and water.

A Capacity Market pays power suppliers for their commitment to meet future electricity needs. A capacity market does not pay for the energy produced.

The California Air Resources Board (CARB) is a California government agency that regulates air pollution. Has been responsible for Advanced Clean Cars and other programs that set more stringent emissions and fuel economy standards than the federal government's, driving electrification and efficiency across the country.

CHAdeMO is a type of EV plug that is commonly found on older Japanese vehicles. CHAdeMO chargers supply high-voltage direct current directly to the vehicle's battery at speeds up to 62.5 kW.

A Charge Point Installer (CPI) is a certified, qualified electrician who installs, services, and repairs electric vehicle (EV) charging stations in homes and businesses.

A Circuit in EV charging is a pathway (usually wires) for transmitting electrical current from a source (like a battery) to a device (like a lamp or a motor). Current can flow through the pathway when the circuit is "closed".

A Circuit Breaker in an EV charging system is a switch that trips to stop the flow of electricity if the current exceeds safe levels. Similar to a fuse, though fuses must be replaced after a single use.

Coincident Peak Demand is a customer's usage level when the electric system reaches its peak. Some demand charges are based on this relationship; see also "non-coincident peak demand" for the other common type.

Congestion in electric utility terms is defined as a grid condition in which there is insufficient infrastructure (pole and wires) capacity to deliver all scheduled energy orders simultaneously.

The Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standard is a federal regulation that has set fleet-wide miles-per-gallon averages that automakers must meet for their car and truck fleets each year since 1978.

Current in EV charging terms is defined as the quantity of charge passing a particular point in an electrical circuit, often referred to as the "rate of flow of electrons".

The Combined Charging System (CCS) is an EV plug type that integrates the J1772 plug with two additional pins for DC fast charging. It is commonly found on Ford, GM, BMW, Hyundai, Kia, VW, and most medium/heavy-duty commercial trucks and buses. Suitable for DC Fast charging, with a maximum power of 350 kW.

A Day-Ahead Market, in electric utility terms, is a financial market where electricity is bought and sold one day before energy delivery. They generally set hourly prices for purchasing kWh or MWh, which allows power producers and utilities to secure prices and lock in generation schedules to ensure grid stability.

Direct Current (DC) is an electrical current that flows in a single, consistent direction and along a single path. As opposed to Alternating Current (AC).

Demand in electrical terms is the amount of power (in kW) being used at a given time.

Demand Charge, in electrical utility terms, is the portion of an electric bill that charges for the 15-minute period each month when a facility uses the most power at once. This "peak" usage is charged in $/kW, which will be by far the largest part of an electric bill and is worth trying to decrease by making energy usage more evenly distributed throughout the day. These charges generally only appear on Commercial & Industrial electric rates.

Demand Charge Management (DCM), in electrical utility terms, is a way to save commercial customers money on their electric bill by reducing peak energy usage. (See “demand charge” for more details.)

Demand Response (DR), in electrical utility terms, is an Incentive-based utility programs that encourage electric power customers to temporarily reduce their power demand at certain times in exchange for a reduction in their electricity bills. Participation can include curtailing usage, operating onsite generation, discharging energy from a vehicle with a bidirectional charger (V2G), or shifting usage to a different time of day.

Demand-Side Management (DSM), in electrical utility terms, is a utility action that reduces or curtails end-use equipment or processes. DSM is often used to reduce customer load during peak demand and/or in times of supply constraints.

A deregulated market, in electrical utility terms, allows private-sector owners and operators of power plants, transmission infrastructure, and retail energy businesses. (See "vertically integrated utility" for the opposite.)

Deregulation, in electrical utility terms, generally refers to the allowance of competition to supply retail energy to end customers, allowing customers to choose the supplier who offers the best contract. Common in the EU but is unevenly available in the United States, as individual states adopt the policy to break historical distribution utility monopolies or leave them in place. In deregulated states, utilities are prohibited from owning generation, transmission, or retail energy suppliers, focusing only on distribution infrastructure. 

Distributed Energy Resources, in electrical utility terms, is a diverse category of devices and technologies that connect to the distribution system near the loads they serve. Examples include distributed generation and storage, electric vehicles and charging stations, grid-interactive buildings and microgrids, as well as more traditional demand response or load flexibility resources

Distributed Energy Resource Management System (DERMS), in electrical utility terms, is a utility software platform designed specifically to integrate DERs into the broader grid management system the utility employs. This allows the utility to leverage DERs to support grid operations such as voltage regulation, load balancing, and frequency control in managing fluctuations in supply and demand.

Distributed Generation (DG), in electrical utility terms, is an energy generator, such as a solar panel system, located close to the load it is intended to serve. General characteristics of these generators include: an operating strategy that supports the served load; and interconnection to a distribution grid.

A distribution system, in electrical utility terms, is the physical infrastructure that moves power, once it leaves the transmission system, to the end user at lower voltages and in smaller quantities.

The Department of Public Service (DPS) is a government agency that regulates companies providing public goods such as electricity, natural gas, telecommunications, and water. Synonym for PUC/Public Utilities Commission.

The Department of Public Utilities is a government agency that regulates companies providing public goods such as electricity, natural gas, telecommunications, and water. Synonym for PUC/Public Utilities Commission.

Dynamic rate, in electrical utility terms, is a retail rate that varies hour-by-hour based on grid conditions and/or wholesale energy prices. Utilities currently set a 24-hour price schedule the day before it takes effect. These rates are meant to replace less nuanced Time-of-use rates and demand response programs with a single, strong price signal to influence individual customers' energy usage while shaping load at the system level. Customers currently generally need an intervening third party, such as Cascade EV Aggregator, to receive the pricing schedule and help plan an EV charging or energy-use profile. 

Edge DERMS is a Distributed Energy Resources Management System that is focused on customer-owned, behind-the-meter assets, handling all customer-facing functions. That includes end consumer engagements and enrollment, forecasting, dispatch, and control of the assets by the utility, customer notifications, and performance calculation and billing determinants.

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) is a US government agency that provides in-depth statistics on all-things energy-related.

Enterprise Distributed Energy Resources Management System can be the single common platform that interacts with aggregators, a grid DERMS, the wholesale market, various legacy systems, and is the single source of validations and settlements across all stakeholders.

The Energy Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) is an Independent System Operator for 90% of the Texas grid. Monitors and controls the transmission system and wholesale electricity markets in Texas. NOT regulated by FERC.

An electric vehicle is defined as any vehicle that uses electric power for propulsion, either fully or partially, via an electric motor drawing energy from rechargeable batteries, fuel cells, or external sources, replacing traditional gasoline/diesel engines for quieter, often cleaner, transport. Used interchangeably with Plug-In Electric Vehicle (PEV) and Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV).

Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) is the technical name for an EV charging station or charger and the category of companies that produce and distribute them. Example: ABB e-Mobility, Autel, Tellus Power, Heliox a Siemens Company, etc.

Export, in electrical utility terms, is a facility (like a home with solar panels or a V2G system) is producing more energy than it is using, and the surplus is sent back to the utility grid for others to use. NOT simply a matter of discharging a battery, "Exporting" is measured at the main utility meter of a customer account.

Feeder, in electrical utility terms, generally refers to the electrical line that carries energy from a substation to the consumer.

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is the federal agency with jurisdiction over interstate electricity sales, wholesale electric rates, hydroelectric licensing, natural gas pricing, oil pipeline rates, and gas pipeline certification.

Firm, in electrical utility terms, is a load or generation capacity that is contractually obligated and remains available to the customer at any time.

Flexible Connection, in electrical utility terms, is the ability to expeditiously energize new load or generation to a utility’s distribution system with variable limits on the import or export of electricity at certain times. The implementation of flexible connections may include tariffs, agreements, and schedules. (Current CPUC definition 2026)

Flexible Service Connection (FSC), in electrical utility terms, is a connection that specifically serves load.

AKA Hosting Capacity Maps. Interconnection Capacity Analysis (ICA) is a map showing the incremental ability of any given area on the electric grid to support new distributed generation, storage, and, in some cases, new load. Maintained by distribution utilities in various states, search "hosting capacity map" and the name of the state to see if they have one there.

Independent System Operator (ISO), in electrical utility terms, coordinates, controls, and monitors the transmission system and market mechanisms for electric power, generally in a single state

Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles have engines that generate power by burning fuel (such as gasoline, diesel, or gas), converting chemical energy into mechanical motion to power vehicles or machinery.

In electrical utility terms, "Front of the Meter (FTM)" generally refers to resources/generation located on the utility side of the grid, feeding energy directly into the grid for sale to the utility or system operator. Also used by some people to refer to revenue streams originating outside a customer's metered site. (This can be demand response, market signals, anything that is not related to onsite bill or resource optimization).

Interconnection (IX), in electrical utility terms, is the process by which distribution utilities confirm a distributed generator (solar panel, battery, V2G system) is safe to operate at a designated location on their grid and grant approval for operation.

In electrical utility terms, the intra-day market is an EU term for a Day-ahead or real-time wholesale energy market. These markets generally create hourly, 15-minute, or 5-minute  prices for sale of kWh or MWh of energy sold the day before or in the hours before the energy is actually needed by the electric system.

In electrical utility terms, an inverter is a device that converts DC power into AC power (or vice versa). Inverters are used to convert household AC current into DC for use in a car battery (and back to AC if the battery discharges as a V2G system), or solar-powered DC current into AC for use in a house. In V2G systems, the inverter may be housed in the EVSE or in the vehicle. 

An investor-owned utility (IOU) is a for-profit electric distribution company that issues publicly traded stock to shareholders (ex: PG&E in California). IOUs serve over 70% of customers in the US.

The Independent System Operator of New England, monitors and controls transmission system and markets for wholesale electricity in Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont.

J1772 (officially SAE J1772) is the North American connector used for Level 1 and Level 2 electric vehicle (EV) charging with a max power of ~19.2 kW. Also known as the "J plug" or Type 1 connector. This plug type is commonly found on many non-Tesla EVs in North America. Suitable for Level 1 & Level 2 (AC) charging. Often used alongside DC ports on many light trucks.

A kilowatt-hour (kWh) is 1000 watt-hours of energy. A watt-hour or kilowatt-hour is a measurement of a volume of energy stored, delivered, or consumed, expressed as the watts of power that could flow over the course of a full hour.

In electrical utility terms, "a load" is any device that consumes electricity. It can also mean the total power needed to run a facility or the entire electric grid, measured in watts, kilowatts, megawatts… ("Peak load").

Load Diversity, in electrical utility terms, is the idea that not all loads on an electrical system will be at their peak usage at the same time. This works both at your house level and at the wider grid level, so you have way more than 200 amps worth of stuff in your house even though that is your panel size.

Locational Marginal Pricing (LPM), in electrical utility terms, is the wholesale electricity market mechanism reflecting the cost of delivering one additional MWh to a particular location on the system. These prices are generally set for each transmission delivery node serving a specific area, and can change every 5, 15, or 60 minutes based on congestion (how much energy is already trying to get through that node).

A Mid-West Independent System Operator (MISO) monitors and controls transmission system and markets for wholesale electricity for parts of Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Texas, and Wisconsin.

National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC) is essentially the trade group for public utility commissions in the US.

National Association of State Energy Officials (NASEO) is a trade group for state agencies like the California Energy Commission and Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources.

The National Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) develops and enforces standards for the operation, planning, and security of the transmission/wholesale electric grid to protect against widespread outages. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) then incorporates these standards into policies and regulations.

Net Billing Tariff is a petail rate that compensates a solar customer at the wholesale rate for kWh exported to the grid. This is generally less lucrative than a net metering tariff, but more reflective of the actual value of the exported kWh.

Net Metering Tariff is a retail rate that compensates a solar customer for kWh exported to the grid at the same rate the customer pays for kWh they use. It generally consists of bill credits that are banked for later use.

In electrical utility terms, a Net Generation Output Meter (NGOM) is an extra meter that's installed when separate energy measurements are needed. In California, these meters are being used to separate energy flows from V2G systems and solar panels to avoid canceling customers' existing solar net metering rates.

Non-coincident peak demand is when an individual customer's peak usage occurs independently of grid conditions. Some demand charges are based on this condition; see "coincident peak demand" for the other common type.

In electrical utility terms, Non-Firm is additional load or generation capacity above the Firm Capacity that the utility obligates to a customer based on updates to the utility’s forecast or measured grid conditions.

The New York Independent System Operator (NYISO) monitors and controls the transmission system and wholesale electricity markets for the state of New York.

The North American Charging Standard (NACS) is an electric vehicle (EV) plug type created by Tesla and now adopted as a standard by most manufacturers for new EVs, combining AC and DC charging into a single sleek plug.

A Plug-In Electric Vehicle (PEV) is a fully battery-electric vehicle with no combustion engine. See Electric Vehicle.

A Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) is a vehicle that can both plug into an electric power source and store power in a battery pack and use petroleum-based or other liquid- or gas-based fuel to power an internal combustion engine.

Pennsylvania Jersey & Maryland Interconnect (PJM) monitors and controls transmission system and markets for wholesale electricity for parts of Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia.

A Publicly Owned Utility (POU) is a not-for-profit distribution company owned/directed by a municipality/other government agency. Revenues are reinvested in infrastructure or in lowering/maintaining customer retail rates.

In electrical utility terms, Power is the rate at which energy is produced, transferred, or used, most commonly associated with electricity. Power is measured in watts and often expressed in kilowatts (kW) or megawatts (MW). Also known as "real" or "active" power.

Power Quality, in electrical utility terms, is the assessment of how well the voltage characteristics of a power supply, including voltage magnitude, frequency, and harmonics, conform to predefined specifications, with poor power quality indicating the presence of disturbances that can disrupt electrical equipment and affect service delivery. Reference: Science Direct.

See Public Utilities Commission (PUC)

The Public Utilities Commission (PUC) is a government agency that regulates companies that provide public goods such as electricity, natural gas, telecommunications, and water.

Rate base is the value of all property, assets, and investments a utility makes to serve its customers is used to calculate the return on investment the utility can earn.

Reactive Power is the portion of electricity that establishes and sustains the electric and magnetic fields of alternating-current equipment. Reactive power must be supplied to most types of magnetic equipment, such as motors and transformers. Reactive power is provided by generators, synchronous condensers, or electrostatic equipment such as capacitors and directly influences electric system voltage. It is measured in its own unit: Volt-amps reactive, or "VARs".

Real-Time Market, in electrical utility terms, is a market that creates prices for the sale of minutes or minute blocks of kWh or MWh of energy sold in the hours before the energy is actually needed by the electric system. The European term for these markets is "Intra-day markets".

Utility reliability is measured in terms of their ability to prevent outages and keep the lights on. 

A Regional Transmission Organization (RTO) coordinates, controls, and monitors the transmission system and market mechanisms for electric power, generally across multiple states. 

Utility resilience is its ability to restore power and recover quickly from outages

Resource Adequacy (RA) is a regulatory mechanism forcing utilities to ensure they have contracted sufficient generation capacity to serve their customers' needs throughout the year under all but the most extreme conditions.

In electrical utility terms, Retail Energy is energy sold to the end customer by the utility or energy retailer. The cost includes both the original wholesale cost and all transmission and distribution costs, maintenance, and the utility's overhead operating costs.

Retail Rate, in electrical utility terms, is the price per kWh at which end customers buy retail energy (See Retail Energy)

Revenue Grade Meter, in electrical utility terms, is the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)-certified meter that records energy with an accuracy of +/-0.5% or +/-2%, depending on the class of meter.

A Supervisory Control & Data Acquisition System (SCADA) is a utility platform for telemetry and tele-control of large DER installations (<1 MW) can be incorporated into an ADMS.

In electrical utility terms, Single-phase is an AC power supply configuration using two wires, one for power and one for neutral, generally used for residential power in the US.

A Smart Inverter, in electrical utility terms, is a device that converts DC power into AC power (or vice versa) while adjusting its operation based on grid conditions and/or requests from the local utility to support grid reliability. These devices can also send operational and grid data to the local utility.

A Smart Meter in electrical utility terms, is a digital electricity meter that records, stores, and communicates energy usage data to utilities at set intervals, usually hourly or every 15 minutes, and may record both energy consumed and produced at a site for net metering of onsite generation.

The Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) is a large Publicly-Owned Utility (see also POU) in California.

A Solar Photovoltaic (Solar PV) converts thermal energy from the sun into electricity, which an inverter then makes into usable current and voltage for home appliances or to send back to the grid.

In electrical utility terms, a Substation is a grid infrastructure component generally used to step voltage up or down from transmission to distribution levels.

Switchgear, in electrical utility terms, is a collection of devices, including fuses, circuit breakers, and meters, that protect and control a site's power infrastructure. It may all be in one box, or it may not. 

A tariff has multiple meanings in the energy industry:

1. A general governing document for operation
   ex: the PJM Tariff; PG&E's Rule 21 tariff governing small generator requirements
2. A pricing structure or rate plan
   ex:  sometimes used to mean a "retail rate" as in "residential time-of-use tariff"

Three-phase (3ph), in electrical utility terms, is an AC power supply configuration that uses three or four wires, delivering power more efficiently and at higher voltages than single-phase. Usually used in commercial & industrial applications in the US.

A Time-Of-Use Rate (TOU) is an electric utility retail $/kWh pricing structure that varies by time of day. Generally includes low-priced time blocks (usually overnight) and a "peak" priced block, and may include additional tiers.

A transformer, in electrical utility terms, is a grid infrastructure device that adjusts the voltage of electricity up or down as it moves from one part of the system to another. A transformer may adjust the voltage up for an efficient long-distance trip on the transmission system (69kV and above), or down from local distribution voltages (4-35 kV) to something usable in your house (120/208 V)

In electrical utility terms, the transmission system is the physical infrastructure that moves large quantities of power at high voltage (from 69 kV to 765 kV), usually over long distances between generating or receiving points and major substations or delivery points.

UL 1741 is the minimum US safety certification for inverters, demonstrating basic functionality to avoid counterproductive operation of distributed resources under abnormal grid conditions and to prevent harm to utility workers. For example, to ensure a solar panel does not continue generating power when the grid is down, leaving lines energized where they should not be.

UL 1741 SA (and SB) is the US safety certification for smart inverters, standing for "Supplement A" and "Supplement B," adding enhanced monitoring, communications, and active functionalities to better support grid reliability and utility operations. More likely to be required in states with large or growing distributed solar/storage presence to better integrate those resources into grid operation.

A utility in the US refers to a public good (something everyone needs, uses, and has equal access to) such as water, electricity, natural gas, and telecommunications, provided by a company regulated to make sure they provide that good as affordably, reliably, and safely.

A utility in the EU specifically means a retail energy supplier who only buys wholesale energy to sell retail, and does not maintain distribution infrastructure.

V1G, also known as managed charging or smart charging, can be implemented with a unidirectional, OCPP-integrated charger equipped with a charge management system such as ChargePilot®. Learn more.

Vehicle Grid Integration (VGI) is a broad term that covers all the different technologies and programs designed to use electric vehicles and their batteries as tools or assets to benefit the electric grid. More specifically, any adjustment to EV charging (and discharging), duration, rate, or location to mitigate impacts or generate value from EVs. (May or may not include discharging) Learn more

Vehicle-to-Building (V2B) is the technology that enables a bidirectional EV to send stored battery power back to a building. By transforming your vehicle into a mobile energy storage system, V2B can help keep essential systems running during outages, reduce energy costs, and support better use of renewable energy. See Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X)

Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) enables electric vehicles to both receive power from and deliver power to the grid, supporting grid services. V2G requires a small generation interconnection with a utility that authorizes a vehicle to discharge to a building or directly to the grid. Once interconnected, EVs can also provide energy services such as solar self-consumption, time-of-use rate arbitrage, peak shaving, and more in areas where utilities and system operators compensate for them. Learn more

Vehicle-to-Home (V2H) is the technology that enables a bidirectional EV to send stored battery power back to a residential home. By transforming your vehicle into a mobile energy storage system, V2H can help keep essential home systems running during outages, reduce energy costs, and support better use of renewable energy. See Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X).

Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) is a broad term for bidirectional EV charging use cases that includes V2G, V2B, V2H. Learn more.

A vertically integrated utility (VIU) is a monopoly that owns power plants, transmission and distribution infrastructure, and the retail business. There is no wholesale market; the utility provides all coordination and ancillary services to itself. 

A Virtual Power Plant (VPP) is an aggregation of distributed energy resources (DERs) that can balance electrical loads and provide utility-scale and utility-grade grid services like a traditional power plant. Reference: U.S. Department of Energy

Volts (V) are known as a unit of measurement for force or energy carried between two points in a system. Calculated as Volts = Watts/Amps

Voltage (V) can be thought of as the "pressure" pushing electricity from one point to another, see "volts."

Watts (W) are a unit of measurement for power. A watt is actually a rate of energy use or generation, calculated as Watts = Amps x Volts

A watt-hour (Wh) or kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a measurement of a volume of energy stored, delivered, or consumed, expressed as the watts of power that could flow over the course of a full hour.

Sold in bulk from power plant operators to utilities or energy retailers.

A Zero-Emission Vehicle (ZEV) is a classification for cars, trucks, and buses (such as battery-electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles) that produce zero tailpipe emissions.